Describe the social, cultural, economic, and political context.
Please answer each questions by each tool requirement. And please not be thin for each question?s answer.There are those requirements for each question.Tool 1. Understand the PastIn order to make use of the past you must be able to characterize, contextualize, and elaborate historical periods. Tprocess allows you to ?set the stage? in which people of the past experienced the world. It gives you a sense of the historical contexts that influenced how the past played out. It gives you an understanding of how we are all influenced by the social environment in which we live..In tclass you are provided with broad overview essays that set out the historical context and important featuthat give the period its historical substance. By analyzing the overview essays you should be able to create a clear picture in your own mind of the period in question as a coherent whole. While tis somewhat of an artificial conceptualization, it gives you a way to remember the context in which the past played out. You should review each essay until you understand the author?s view of the period.STANDARDSTo meet the standard for ttool the work must:? Summarize the distinctive nature and general contours of the period.? Describe the social, cultural, economic, and political context.? Note people, ideas, movements, events, and other factors that played out in the period.? Be sufficiently developed to convey understanding of the past.To excthe standard for ttool the work must meet the criteria above and do one or more of the following:? Show a thoughtful and complex understanding of the past.? Be well-developed. Go beyond a basic level of elaboration.Example of an explanation to show understanding of a historical period, based on a secondary source essay.In the half century after the end of Reconstruction, the United States became increasingly modern in its technology, economy, and politics. It was a ?Gilded Age? in which the country?s ?outward wealth and dazzle? contrasted with ?inner corruption and poverty,? according to historian Richard White. The country set about integrating the West through government action intended to develop the vast agricultural potential of the region while dealing with the Indians through suppression and integration. White notes that twas not only a tragedy for the plains Indians, but it was a ?paradox? in which farmers became more productive in the new vast lands of the West, but also saw their share of the economy decline over the period. However, for White, the ?greatest changes of the period? were the rise of industry, the growth of wage labor, and urbanization. The economy reflected thchanges such that by the turn of the century the United States produced half of the world?s industrial output. The industrial growth was accompanied by social changes as immigrants came from abroad and industrial workers flocked to the cities in search of jobs. Immigrants began to give the country its diverse and cosmopolitan character as they formed enclaves in many cities, but they also experienced discrimination and restriction. Americans found jobs in the growing factories, but faced a grim existence as the work often was unhealthful and dangerous. Reformers set out to resolve the country?s problems as growing labor organization clashed with the growing power of industrial capital. Historical factors that Rodgers sets out as important include:-The end of Reconstruction enshrined repression and segregation in the South for African Americans.-The Dawes Act of 1887 redistributed western lands from Indians to white Americans.-ChinExclusion Act of 1883 represented growing conflict between ?native? Americans and new immigrants.-Railroads increased to 161,000 miles, consumed massive quantities of steel, and employed hundreds of thousands.-Workers reacted against the grim conditions of industrial work in strikes such as the Great Railroad Strike of 1877-While industrial growth continued, it was uneven and did not spread across all sectors of the economy.-Horatio Alger wrote novels that tried to reconcile the new economy with the old values of individualism.-Groups such as the ?antimonopolists? and Populists emerged to oppose the growing aggregation of business.-Thomas Edison was a symbol of the new focus on technology and invention.-John D. Rockefeller represented the vast wealth and growing power of business conglomerates.-The country?s new power manifested itself in the Spanish-American War of 1898.Tool 2. Understand SourcesUnderstanding what people believe or felt about the past , or experienced themselves in the past, helps us recognize the contingent nature of history. Everything we know about the past is mediated by those who have studied it or lived in it. There are two types of sources:a. Secondary Sources: Our understanding of the past is contingent upon the interpretations of historians who have examined the past record and synthesized the evidence into an essay or some other output that reflects their view. Secondary sources are the accounts produced by historians or other scholars, generally long after the events have taken place. You must be able to clearly identify, summarize, and express their viewpoint. Tis not the author?s subject or topic, but what he or she believes about the topic. What is or her claim about the topic? Generally you can summarize tviewpoint in much the same form as you would express your own argument in a thesis or premise, as shown in Rule 3a below?being sure to clearly identify the author or authors.STANDARDS FOR Tool 2aTo meet the standard for ttool the work must:? Show a basic understanding of the author?s basic viewpoint.To excthe standard for ttool the work must meet the criteria above and do one or more of the following:? Clearly and precisely identify, summarize, and express the author?s viewpoint.b. Primary Sources: Our understanding of the past is based largely on the original sources of those who lived at the time in question. Primary sources are original letters, photographs, works of art, interviews, printed accounts, official records, statistics, or other material produced at the time to which they refer or by those who witnessed the events of the time. Primary sources are often autobiographies or memoirs produced by people who lived the events they describe, even when they were created later. To understand a primary source you must both analyze it and evaluate its value as evidence. You must be able to read and penetrate the language of people who may not speak as you do. What do they mean? What is their viewpoint? How do the times in which they were produced impact the creation of the source? How do they relate to the present day? What questions about history and about the present day can you answer using tsource?STANDARDS FOR Tool 2bTo meet the standard for ttool the work must:? Properly identify and cite the source(s).? Generally summarize and express the meaning of the source(s).To excthe standard for ttool the work must meet the criteria above and do one or more of the following:? Show a clear sense of the historical context for the source(s).? Indicates the questions about history and the present day can tsource address.Example of a brief coherent examination of a primary source.Thomas Edison linked invention ?factory? to the nof the new business enterprises of the time. In an 1877 letter to the head of Western Union Telegraph, Edison asked the company for $40,000 that would allow for the creation of ?unusual facilities? for ?perfecting any kind of Telegraphic invention.? Clearly, Edison reflected a time when the country was seeking to advance itself technologically. While he aims to secure funding for work, he shows that he has the entrepreneurial spirit that characterized the spirit of the late-nineteenth century. use of the term ?factory? gives the source its tie to the industrial revolution that was then underway in the United States, and, consequently, tsource is useful in understanding the industrial expansion of the times. It also addresses the way society approaches technology today, not only as a tool, but as a way to achieve wealth and fame. Edison, like Bill Gates, Steve Jobs, and other entrepreneurs advanced technology, built corporations, and made millions.Tool 3. Use HistoryAs noted in the introduction, history is something that we can use to access and take advantage of the vast database of useful information that is the best. But it must be done properly with focus, coherence, and effectively-applied evidence.a. Be focused and coherent. The first few sentences of any written work constitute your thesis or main premise that introduces or summarizes the work. It may characterize a historical period, set up a paragraph topic, or summarize a larger historical essay. It represents your main argument, explanation, or interpretation. The first few sentences is what gives your work coherence, or holds it together. The thesis should be clear, focused, and complex. Avoid beginning with general, vague, or superficial statements. Short declarative sentences will often be insufficient to summarize complex topics. Avoid writing such that it sounds like you are answering a question. Write as though the work would stand alone without reference to vague descriptors such as ?tchapter? or ?thsources.? If you are responding to a question, don?t repeat the assumptions or terms of the question, but summarize the overall explanation that will be developed in the body of the paragraph or essay. The opening statement for a paragraph may require only a sentence, while an essay may nthree or four sentences. A typical thesis for tcourse should be 30 to 75 words, depending upon the writing task.STANDARDSTo meet the standard for ttool the work must:? Begin with a statement that is clear and focused.? Generally hold together and flow directly from point to point.To excthe standard for ttool the work must meet the criteria above and do one or more of the following:? Begin with a statement that is complex.? Show thoughtfulness, insight, and/or originality.Here is an example of a premise or thesis:Although there was a great disparity between rich and poor, the technological innovations of the late- nineteenth century thrust the United States into the age of industry, urban life, and modernity. Invention and scientific advances came to be applied to industrial work, spawning new approaches, economic expansion, and innovative solutions to factory problems.b. Use Evidence: Generally, history is based on evidence. You will use tinformation from and about the past to make a case, defend a claim, support an argument, illustrate an explanation. Evidence Selection: You must always be careful to choose evidence that supports the argument or interpretation that you expressed in your thesis. Its connection to the thesis must be made clear to the reader. When directed to do so in tclass you should use the provided sources directly and explicitly. You should use both primary and secondary sources to give clarity and richness in the support for your view. While both primary and secondary sources are essential and effective, you should look for opportunities to use primary sources as they are the basis for all good historical interpretation. Evidence Identification and Citation: Evidence that effectively supports the thesis must be identified and properly cited. You must clearly identify the sources you use as part of a sentence, as shown in the examples below. At a minimum you should cite the author, give some clear time reference, and add other identifying points added as necessary. When making a second reference to an author always use or her last name. Parenthetic citations or footnotes are not required. Evidence Quotation: Quotations from sources, integrated carefully within your own sentences, are essential for good historical writing. Quotations are effective tools for conveying authority and power to your writing. The quotation should be used to strengthen YOUR explanation, analysis, or interpretation, but should not be used to convey undigested and unprocessed information to the reader. In their text A Sequence for Academic Writing, Behrens, Rosen, and Beedles note that you should use quotations when the source?s language is memorable and adds ?liveliness? to your writing, or when you want ?a source to lend authority and credibility to your own writing.? When using a quotation, incorporate it smoothly into your own stream of language, rather than merely dropping it in without an introduction or signal phrase. See the note on historical evidence above for methods of citing quotations. While ample quotation can make for a strong paper, you should keep them short, never more than twenty-five words. The assertion, paragraph, or paper should contain primarily your own words, so you should use only memorable, illustrative, or poignant words or phrases of your source. A few words or a phrase is generally sufficient to convey your point.STANDARDSTo meet the standard for ttool the work must:? Select evidence that directly and clearly supports the argument or interpretation.? Identify sources sufficiently and as part of sentences.? Provide the author, type, and a time reference, if available.? Use short quotations.? Use sufficient evidence to support the thesis. (For longer works.)? Draw on mostly primary and some secondary sources. (For longer works.)To excthe standard for ttool the work must meet the criteria above and do one or more of the following:? Use substantial evidence to support the thesis. (For longer works.)? Blend evidence smoothly throughout the work. (For longer works.)Examples of points of evidence, one for a secondary source and one for a primary source:?In a 2004 essay, historian Paul Israel notes that Thomas Edison was key to the ?technologies we associate with our modern, technological society.? Edison founded basic industries, according to Israel, but ?most important contribution was a new method of invention? that became the first industrial research laboratory.?Thomas Edison linked invention ?factory? to the nof the new business enterprises of the time. In an 1877 letter to the head of Western Union Telegraph, Edison asked the company for $40,000 that would allow for the creation of ?unusual facilities? for ?perfecting any kind of Telegraphic invention.??Tool 4: Show EmpathyBy developing an appreciation of how others see, and saw, the world, we gain range, depth, and openness in our thinking. You should be able to explain the lived experiences, decisions, and actions of people in a specific historical and social context. And you should be able to demonstrate understanding of how people in the past thought, felt, made decisions, acted, and faced consequences. You should try to be open to their experience, attitudes, and ideas, even when you don?t agree with them. Try to show that you understand how they were influenced by the times in which they lived. Tis empathy or historical perspective, but it doesn?t mean that you have to agree with the people you read about. It means that you understand ?where they are coming from? even if you find their ideas, words, and actions repugnant. The expression of empathy or historical perspective can be any length, a short paragraph like the one shown below or much longer commentaries. You should make direct reference to the source or sources by author, use some of the words from the sources, place the people in their historical context, and show understanding of the lived experiences of the people in the sources. Unlike other work in tclass, examples of empathy can be written in first person.STANDARDS:To meet the standard for ttool the work must:? Show a basic understanding of how people in the past decided, acted, and faced consequences.? Indicate an impression of how people in the past thought or felt.? Show how people in the past were influenced by their historical and social context.? Show openness to ideas and actions of people in the past.? Uses the words of people in the past.To excthe standard for ttool the work must meet the criteria above and do one or more of the following:? Show insight and complexity in addressing people in the past.? Show a keen sensibility of how people in the past thought or felt about their experiences.Example of a one-paragraph informal comment:Immigrants really had a difficult time when they came to America. I can see that both Chinand Jewish immigrants faced discrimination even though they came here to have a better life. Mary Tape just wanted to send her kids to good schools, but when she did they were ?hated.? And Jews came from Russia but said ?they were safer from assault and insult in that country than they are on the streets of Chicago.? Maybe it was because they were both seen as ?different? than the white, Anglo, Christian Americans who were already in America. Both groups probably set themselves apart from society by living in neighborhoods where there were others like them. I can see that in the article by Jacob Riis. He showed how New York was divided up into thlittle communities of immigrants. That was probably more comfortable for them and gave them access to things that they might not find outside their own community, so it was understandable. It also gave New York its ?cosmopolitan character,? as Riis said. Maybe that?s true for all of the United States at that time.Scroll down for an explicated paragraph that incorporates the Tools.Example of a coherent paragraph incorporating most of the guidelines above.Although there was a great disparity between rich and poor, the technological innovations of the late-nineteenth century thrust the country into the modern age. Invention and scientific advances came to be applied to industrial work, spawning new approaches, economic expansion, and innovative solutions to factory problems. According to the historian Brent Glass in a 2006 essay, the engineer John A Roebling created some of the most ?daring structures? in the world, bridges that were both ?functional and beautiful? including ?masterpiece,? the Brooklyn Bridge, completed in 1883. In a 2004 essay, the historian Paul Israel notes that Thomas Edison was key to the ?technologies we associate with our modern, technological society.? For Israel, however, Edison?s ?most important contribution was a new method of invention? that became the first industrial research laboratory. Edison linked invention ?factory? to the nof the new business enterprises of the time. In an 1877 letter Edison asked the head of Western Union Telegraph, the company for $40,000 that would allow for the creation of ?unusual facilities? for ?perfecting any kind of Telegraphic invention.? Similarly, while working on improving communications, Alexander Graham Bell wrote in 1878 ?It is possible to connect every man?s house, office or factory with a central station, so as to give him direct communication with neighbors.? Evaluation of the example paragraph.General Caveat: The paragraph includes few or no errors in writing mechanics and follows scholarly conventions of style and usage.Tool 1: It shows understanding of the period in question.Tool 2: It shows understanding of four sources, two secondary and two primary.Tool 3a: The paragraph Begins with a clear premise to give the work focus and coherence.Tool 3b: Evidence is well-selected and directly supports the thesis.Tool 3b: The author clearly and properly identifies the sources used.Tool 3b: Points of evidence use several short quotations.Tool 4: Empathy is not expressed overtly, but may be implied in the way the paragraph shows openness to the actions of Edison and Bell and in the way they are placed in their historical context.ASSIGNMENT IIAnswer all questions. Number your responses. Leave a space between each response.Save your file to your own computer or storage media in MS Word (.doc or .docx).?For all responses apply the ?General Caveat: Be Scholarly.?1. Write an explanation of the period from the 1760s through the 1790s as outlined in the Overview Essays by M.J. Smith and Pauline Maier. Apply Tool 1 .2. What is the main argument of Benjamin Irvin in essay on Benjamin Franklin? Note that you are NOT describing the topic of essay, but what he believes about that topic. What is claim or interpretation? Respond in two or three sentences. Apply Tool 2a .3. Write a brief examination of the source by Benjamin Franklin. Read the background essay that precedes the source before reading the source itself. Apply Tool 2b .4. ?The emergence of a new American nation-state was not just about the ?Founding Fathers.? There were others who were engaged in the events that led to the formation of the new republic.? How did each of the seven sources in the section on Revolution and Constitution support tthesis? Respond in one point of evidence for each source. Apply Tool 3b .5. ?Nationalism grew dramatically in late-eighteenth century as Americans went through a period of self-examination and celebration of their new life as an independent nation.? How did each of the seven sources in the section on ?New Nation? support tthesis? Respond in one point of evidence for each source. Apply Tool 3b .6. Comment informally on any ONE primary source that seemed especially meaningful to you in the sections titled ?Revolution and Constitution? or ?New Nation.? Respond in a coherent paragraph. Apply Tool 4 .Assignment 3ASSIGNMENT IIIAnswer all questions. Number your responses. Leave a space between each response.Save your file to your own computer or storage media in MS Word (.doc or .docx).?For all responses apply the ?General Caveat: Be Scholarly.?1. Write an explanation of the period from the 1790s through the 1840s as outlined in the Overview Essay by Joyce Appleby. Apply Tool 1.2. Write a one paragraph summary of the essay by Marie Jenkins Schwartz . Apply Tool 2a3. Write a brief collective examination of the two primary sources on Antebellum Religion. Respond in a coherent paragraph. Apply Tool 2b .4. Discuss the role and status of women in the early-nineteenth centuries, and how they coped with their position in American society, based on the four sources in ?Women in the Antebellum Period.? Respond in a coherent paragraph. Apply Tool 3 .5. Explain the nature of reform from the perspective of the Transcendentalist movement, based on the four sources in Antebellum Reform. Respond in a coherent paragraph. Apply Tool 3 .6. Comment informally on the source by Hannah Valentine. Respond in a coherent paragraph. Apply Tool 4 .ASSIGNMENT IVAnswer all questions. Number your responses. Leave a space between each response.Save your file to your own computer or storage media in MS Word (.doc or .docx).?For all responses apply the ?General Caveat: Be Scholarly.?1. Write an explanation of the period from the 1830s through 1861 as outlined in the Overview Essays by Ted Widmer and Bruce Levine. Apply Tool 1 .2. Write a one paragraph summary of the essay by M.J. Smith on American Regionalism. Apply Tool 2a.3. Write a brief collective examination of the three primary sources in the section on Antebellum Politics. Respond in a coherent paragraph. Respond in a coherent paragraph. Apply Tool 2b .4. Explain how women and African Americans attempted to secure their place in the nation during the antebellum period as show in the section on Citizenship in Antebellum America. Respond in a thesis statement. Apply Tool 3a5. How did each of the six sources in the section on Citizenship in Antebellum America support the thesis you wrote for question 4? Respond in one point of evidence for each source. Apply Tool 3b .6. Explain the debate over American nationalism as reflected in the documents on Sectionalism and Secession. Respond in a coherent paragraph. Apply Tool 3 .7. Comment informally on any primary source in the section on Citizenship in Antebellum America. Respond in a coherent paragraph. Apply Tool 4 .ASSIGNMENT VAnswer all questions. Number your responses. Leave a space between each response.Save your file to your own computer or storage media in MS Word (.doc or .docx).?For all responses apply the ?General Caveat: Be Scholarly.?1. Write an explanation of the period from 1861 to the 1870s as outlined in the Overview Essay by Eric Foner. Apply Tool 1 .2. Write a collective explanation of the Civil War Letters. Respond in a coherent paragraph. Apply Tool 2.3. Discuss African Americans and emancipation in the Civil War era, as suggested by the sources on Emancipation. Respond in a thesis statement. Apply Tool 3a4. How did each of the four sources in the section on Emancipation support the thesis you wrote for question 4? Respond in one point of evidence for each source. Apply Tool 3b .5. Explain how African Americans and women and attempted to secure their place in the nation after the civil war, as suggested by the sources on the Post Bellum Period. Respond in a coherent paragraph. Apply Tool 3.6. Comment informally on the two Letters of Mattie Oblinger in the section on Women in the West. Respond in a coherent paragraph. Apply Tool 4 .Resources:For IIPart II. 1760s to 1790s1. Read the Overview Essays below thoroughly and carefully.Highlight or note the general contours and key featuof tperiod.2. Review the sources in the sections.Note how they relate to the historical period.3. Complete the Assignment and submit on Blackboard before the deadline.OVERVIEW ESSAYS (2)? M.J. Smith, ?The Roots of American Nationalism?By the mid-eighteenth century a new society was emerging in the colonies as concepts born in Europe found expression in the particular circumstances of North America. There came to be the beginnings of a distinct ?American? society and culture, a national identity that was being forged by the particular circumstances of life in America and by new ideas born in Europe. Most notably, the intellectual movement known as the Enlightenment led to a questioning of long-held traditions and lifeways, and gave some colonists the ideas with which to challenge the basic premises of their relationship with Europe.As a result of the Renaissance and Scientific Revolution Western civilization became exposed to new worlds. New technology of investigation and navigation (the telescope and the caravel, for example) led to the discovery of realms hitherto unknown to Europeans. Scientific researchers using lenses found in the heavens new cosmic worlds and, literally, under their noses new microscopic worlds that were both wonderful and frightening. At the same time, explorers traveled abroad and found new terrestrial worlds, occupied by natural and human forms that offered threats as well as opportunities.Inevitably, the exposure to thnew worlds meant that the old order no longer made sense to Europeans. The traditions and institutions that had long provided the answers to life?s questions came into question, and thinkers began to formulate new approaches to answering such questions. Among those who most profoundly changed human understanding was the French philosopher Ren? Descartes, who called for a radical skepticism in all thinking. Descartes argued in 1637 that truth could be known, but that we should ?never to accept anything as true if I had not evident knowledge of its being so.? By the mid-1600s, Cartesian thinking (for Descartes) was influencing intellectuals throughout Europe and suggesting that we should question traditional authority through formal methods of investigation.By the 1700s, the new ways of thinking had coalesced into an intellectual movement that came to be called the Enlightenment, a font of ideas that would come to America where it would form the basis of important aspects of American life. The Enlightenment is also known as the Age of Reason, for one of its most central tenets: the idea than anyone can, regardless of their place in the social hierarchy, had the freedom to become ?enlightened? through the use of their own powers of reason. ?Have courage to use your own reason!? said the philosopher Emmanuel Kant in 1784. The use of reason, rather than relying on some higher, or supernatural, power suggests that humans have the ability to learn and make judgments by the application of their intellectual faculties. The world would improve as more people became thus enlightened through the resulting scientific and social progress. Reason and progress went hand-in-hand in tconception.For Enlightenment-era thinkers, an absolute reliance on spiritual explanations for the way the world worked was no longer acceptable. Consequently, the Enlightenment continued the quest for natural (rather than supernatural) explanations that had begun during the Renaissance. They undertook to know the world through experiment and observation, using the scientific method and their own senses in a process known as empiricism. Americans like Benjamin Franklin conducted experiments in what they called ?natural philosophy,? the pursuit of laws by which things worked. As he wrote in a 1755 letter, ?Let the experiments be made?.? Their studies led the empiricists to conclude that the universe was governed by knowable, natural laws and they called for the expansion of education to ensure that thlaws would be known to all of humankind.In one sense, the empiricists called for a world of knowledge that transcended national boundaries, a cosmopolitan universe of letters where understanding would be free and open. On other hand, Franklin and other Americans came to believe that America, in particular, was ripe for tkind of empirical research now that it had gone beyond the early ?drudgery? of establishing itself. By the mid-1700s, Franklin believed, there was a class of Americans who had the resources and leisure to undertake the kind of experiment and exploration that would not only ?improve the common stock of knowledge? but would also establish America as a distinct place in the world of natural philosophy, as he argued in 1743. Consequently, the Enlightened thinking of early 1700s, Franklin?s empiricism in particular, was part of the sense of American distinctiveness that would grow to the point of revolution by the 1770s.Based on thideas Franklin and others founded in 1743 the American Philosophical Society, the first learned society in the country dedicated to the cultural and intellectual development of humankind. As stated in its original charter, the Society undertook ?all philosophical experiments that light into the nature of things, tend to increase the power of man over matter, and multiply the conveniences or pleasuof life.? Membership included doctors, lawyers, clergymen, merchants, tradesmen like Benjamin Franklin. The society number many of the nation?s founders as its members, including George Washington, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton, Thomas Paine, and John Marshall. In their current mission statement, the APS deems its original charter as ?enlightened? and believes it illustrates ?how closely the new nation linked learning and freedom, regarding each as the support and protection of the other.?Basic to enlightenment thinking is the idea of freedom. As noted above, thinkers from Descartes to Franklin believed in intellectual liberty, and freedom from the constraints of traditional institutions. To be ?enlightened,? wrote the philosopher Emmanuel Kant in the eighteenth century, ?nothing is required but freedom.? More than just scientific study, Enlightenment thinkers explored the political and economic realms, as well, and suggested that liberty should extend to issues in governance and the marketplace. The ideology that best expresses the extension of basic liberty to most areas of human activity and thought is liberalism.The classical form of liberalism that was born in the Enlightenment is based on the idea that people should be free from interference of traditional authority, most notably the government. The growth of liberal ideas represented a break from the traditional strong roles of the state, the aristocracy, and the church. Individual rights, private property, and a free marketplace are all central tenets that eighteenth century liberals expressed, and that found a fertile ground for growth in the British colonies where a monarchy controlled government and commerce.Among the most influential thinkers of the Enlightenment was John Locke, who developed basic ideas of political liberalism, publishing most influential works in the 1690s. T
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